By: Ashley Du & Jeff Li
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Plastic pollution is a global issue that has devastating effects on humans, animals, and the environment. Compounds that are often found in our plastic bottles can leach into the water, causing serious health issues like hormone changes, insulin resistance, and cancer (Geneva Environment Network 2022). These microplastics are ubiquitous in our food, largely because they are found in the soil and groundwater in which our plants grow. Plastics in landfills can break down over decades and seep into the soil and the groundwater. When our plants grow using the plastic-filled groundwater and soil, microplastics enter their cells and, subsequently, when we eat them, enter our bodies (Gerresten 2023)
The harms of plastic pollution do not just affect humans. Over 1 million marine organisms like turtles and seals are trapped in large pieces of plastic per year, causing difficulty breathing and eventually death (Sea Turtle Conservatory 2002). Losing marine biodiversity impacts the whole ecosystem, which means if this magnitude of plastic pollution continues, the whole marine ecosystem will suffer greatly. Both recycling and utilizing alternative materials can help alleviate the devastating effects of this issue and help rejuvenate Earth.
Starting with recycling, the standard single-stream recycling process has existed since the 1990s, and it is what most of the world uses today. The 4 step process, including collecting, transporting, sorting, and recycling the plastics, has not been effective in the past and will not be in the future. Over 26% of recyclable materials end up in landfills because of clumsy sorting issues or the intolerance of the recycling plant for mixed materials (Burrows 2022). For instance, many recycling plants cannot process straws or bags because they clog up machinery. Recyclable materials disposed of in a household trash bag often get sent straight to the landfills because it is inefficient for workers to unwrap and sort the trash (Burrows 2022).
The core problem of these ineffective recycling systems is the highly manual and outdated machinery the plants use. This is partially because the federal and state governments do not allocate enough funds for recycling technology development. Large companies also do not want to switch to other materials because of the cheap cost of plastic. To solve these issues, new recycling system prototypes have been proposed to truly make these processes effective. Bio-engineered enzymes, AI-integrated systems, and the Exxon-Mobil advanced recycling system will be discussed in this brief as solutions to the current recycling problem.
The second way to alleviate the harms of plastic pollution is to target the plastic itself. It is important to note that even though plastic alternatives are likely to be more expensive than plastic, they must be considered because of the devastating trajectory the world is headed toward if we keep using plastic. Plastics that humans use every day are not biodegradable, which means that the material will stay in the environment for over 1000 years (Kayla 2023). These plastics do not just remain present in the environment; they interfere with the natural course of life, killing animals by suffocation and ruining soil. The front runner in plastics, PET has over 10,000 chemicals involved in its production, and 24% of them are harmful to humans and the environment (Lim 2021). Thankfully, scientists have developed many alternatives to plastics that are biodegradable including bioplastics, mushroom mycelium, and casein plastics, which will be discussed in this brief.
Plastic pollution is devastating and has already been stated by many to be unsolvable or irreversible. In fact, by 2050, the number of plastics in the ocean will quadruple (WWF 2022). However, there is still hope of alleviating the effects if humans unite and decide seriously to act on this issue as soon as possible. This brief will close with policy recommendations to reduce plastic pollution, thereby protecting human and ecosystem health.
Overview of the Current Recycling System
Recycling systems vary from one country to another, but the standard single-stream recycling system includes four different steps. First, the consumers throw their trash into separate bins in colors that correspond to the trash type. Next, the trash bins are transported to a recycling facility. The facility will clean, sort, and prepare recyclables. Lots of unwanted materials get mixed in with the recyclables, so some trash will take additional work to sort. Unwanted trash gets sent to landfills. Finally, the recyclables are made into new products at other facilities like plastic bottle factories or paper mill facilities (USEPA 2019).
Countries like Switzerland use innovative ways to deal with unwanted trash, such as incinerating it to extract a proportional amount of energy from the heat released (Duong 2021). Innovative recycling systems are crucial for alleviating plastic pollution because of the lack of reliability other methods provide. For instance, convincing the general public to start reducing their plastic consumption is difficult as most do not understand the harms of the issue. Recycling systems provide a tangible solution to already-created plastic by reusing plastic to reduce the demand for natural resources to produce new plastic However, current recycling systems have shown flaws in terms of effectiveness and efficiency. Over 26% of recyclable materials end up in landfills because of clumsy sorting issues or the tolerance of the recycling plant. Many recycling plants cannot process straws or bags because they clog up machinery. Recyclable materials wrapped in a household trash bag could get sent straight to the landfills because it is inefficient for workers to unwrap and sort the trash (Burrows 2022). The core problem of these ineffective recycling systems is, thus, the highly manual and outdated machinery the plants use. To solve these issues, new recycling system prototypes have been proposed to truly make these processes effective.
Bio-Engineered Enzymes
As bio-engineering continues to advance, enzyme technology subsequently has improved. New enzymes, called PETase, have been developed that can break down the chemical bonds of PET, the most common type of polyester, by reducing it to mono-terephthalic acid. This acid can then be further decomposed by MHETase, another enzyme, into glycol and ethylene, which are good carbon sources for bacteria (Burgins 2024). With this new enzyme, plastics can be bio-degraded with no emissions. PETase can replace the heavy machinery that is currently employed to break down plastic. However, the PETase enzyme does take a bit of time to decompose plastic, lasting days or even weeks. Furthermore, the temperature needs to be at exactly 40 degrees Celsius for optimal performance. Temperature control is hard to monitor outside the lab, making optimal performance infeasible. It is worth noting that PETase is relatively inexpensive, costing only around 116 USD per ton (Chen 2023). Each ton of enzymes can break down many more tons of plastics. Even with its cheap cost, the main issue with this method is the versatility of the enzyme. PETase can only break down PET plastics, which means that other types of plastic would require different enzymes. Scientists have not yet developed a panacea enzyme to break down all types of plastic. This process could be effective in the future when all lab testing is complete and results are satisfactory. But right now, it is not commercially viable and is too complicated to integrate into our system.
AI-ntegrated Recycling Systems
The second solution takes advantage of the increasingly prominent artificial intelligence technology and integrates it into traditional recycling systems. In this process, the standard single-stream recycling system is still used, but this time each step is modified to use AI to make things easier and more effective. At the first level, normal recycling bins are replaced with smart bins with sensors to detect the material thrown into them so that they can automatically filter recyclable materials into a separate compartment from non-recyclable materials. This process helps to solve a major issue faced by current recycling systems, as human workers and outdated machinery have low accuracy.
In addition to smart bins placed in the home, AI can further increase accuracy by using sensors to accurately filter out trash on-site at the recycling plant. For instance, the robot arm developed by Everest Labs utilizes AI to detect non-recyclable trash and remove it from the conveyor belt. They use their own AI system, EverestOS to help with evaluating the quality of the materials and detecting contaminants in the recycle stream. This eliminates human error and improves efficiency so that the recycled materials are more pure and last longer. The downside to this process is the huge cost that comes with these robots. Each robot could cost up to 300,000 dollars, and multiple are needed in each facility (Everest Labs n.d.). In addition, smart bins would be hard to implement because no consumer would be willing to pay more than $100 just for a trash can. The government would need to allocate significant funds to recycling and create a plan for distributing new machinery and bins around the country. As AI matures, this process will likely become increasingly feasible as costs decrease. At this point, however, it is not possible due to the high cost and labor-intensive process of introducing AI to the general recycling system.
Exxon Mobil Advanced Recycling
The advanced recycling system developed by Exxon Mobil includes four different steps, just like a normal single-stream recycling system. However, each part of the process is modified slightly to create a more effective system. First, Exxon Mobil is collecting not only plastics like bottles and bags but also hard-to-recycle plastics like gas containers and hard plastics. Next, those hard-to-recycle plastics that would normally end up in the landfill are sorted and sent to the advanced recycling facilities. Normal plastics are sent down the stream to mechanical recyclers. Then, the hard plastics are shredded and processed to fit the specifications of the advanced recycler. Lastly, the plastics are broken down into liquid and gas molecules by the advanced recycler so they can later be rebuilt into raw materials (Exxon Mobil n.d.).
Though both the aforementioned advanced recycler and the enzyme break down the plastic, Exxon Mobil has produced tangible results and the system is already in motion. Their facility in Baytown, Texas, has been running since 2022 and has an annual processing capacity of 80 million pounds of plastics per year (Exxon Mobil n.d.). They also have plans to expand their facilities around the globe and introduce 1 billion pounds of capacity by 2027 (Exxon Mobil n.d.). It is important to note that there could be bias in the literature because the company is writing about itself. There is also a lack of discussion around the costs of this system. Despite that, this recycling system is the most feasible because it already exists and is working. In addition, they also have plans to expand into other continents, showing that this recycling system could stand the test of time(Exxon Mobil n.d.).Having an actual facility and statistics to back it up makes this the most plausible and effective system of the three discussed so far.
Materials
Plastic is a widely used material, with 400.3 million metric tons of plastic produced in 2022 (Statista Research Department 2024). In 1988, the Society of Plastic Industry divided plastics into seven categories(Almack 2023). Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) is the number one most used plastic. It is lightweight, strong, transparent, normally used in food packaging, and widely recyclable. Number 2, High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE), is extremely resistant, as it can be subjected to high temperatures and used in grocery bags, milk jugs, and playground equipment. It is accepted at most recycling centers. Number 3, Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), is the world's third-most widely produced synthetic plastic polymer used in the building and construction industry and is now replacing traditional building materials. However, PVC is hardly recyclable. The rest of the plastic materials we use are Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE), Polypropylene (PP), Polystyrene (PS), and other plastics, which are all nearly non-recyclable except for Polypropylene (Plastic Oceans International 2021).
Of the various types of plastics used, most are non-recyclable. Only 9% of the plastic ever produced has been recycled, and 19% has been incinerated, as recycling is an energy-intensive process that is extremely costly (Main 2023). Yet, a big reason is the lack of capacity to recycle various plastics. With 19-23 million tons of plastic waste leaking into aquatic ecosystems, polluting the environment, and harming the ecosystem, more environmentally friendly and sustainable materials are worth investing in (UNEP n.d.). In order to increase the recyclability of our waste, new materials should be explored and invested in.
Bioplastics
Bioplastics are manufactured from bio-based polymers derived from renewable or recycled raw materials. These natural polymers are often from agricultural, cellulose potato, and corn starch waste. Bioplastics made from these raw materials are 100% degradable and are equally resistant and versatile as plastic (Sustainability for All n.d.). However, bioplastics made from petroleum and GMOs are nondegradable (Sustainability for All n.d.). Bioplastics are already used in agriculture, medicine, the textile industry, and packaging markets (Rosenboom et al. 2022). They are popular in cities in the United States and Europe, as they can be produced by fermenting raw materials with bacterial strains, resulting in bioplastic. Within ten years, bioplastics are expected to cover ten percent of European plastics market needs (Sustainability for All n.d.). Bioplastics can reduce our carbon footprint, save production energy, and reduce waste (Rosenboom et al. 2022). However, they increase competition with food production and have unclear end-of-life management. Furthermore, the cost of bioplastics is between twenty and fifty percent higher than traditional plastics, making them infeasible in many markets (Elytus n.d.).
Mushroom Mycelium
Mushroom Mycelium can also be used as an alternative to plastics. Mycelium is the root network of a fungus, usually found below the ground. It is a natural material that’s renewable and cheap to produce (SourceGreen 2023). It is also easy to grow and has an excellent end-of-life performance, as it is home-compostable (SourceGreen 2023). Mycelium is not only strong but can also be molded into different shapes. It can be used for protective packaging using agricultural byproducts such as woodchips and straw to create rigid shapes. As Mycelium is incredibly versatile, it is also used to make skincare sponges, cruelty-free leather, and alternative protein substitutes (SourceGreen 2023). Mycelium-based products are cheaper to produce than most plastics. It costs around fifty USD to produce one square foot of Mycelia (Straits Research n.d.). However, it is a living material sensitive to environmental conditions. It is also susceptible to contamination if not properly sterilized. Mushroom mycelium is not produced at scale yet due to the early stages of technology and the lack of funding to support the cost of production, which as said, is way more expensive than traditional plastics. Additionally, as mushroom mycelium is derived from the roots of mushrooms, scaling up production puts stress on mushroom plantations. However, with an increase in funding to support technological advancement and production fees, mushroom mycelium could be an alternative to traditional plastics.
Casein Plastic
Casein plastics can be another alternative material. Milk contains many molecules of casein, which is a protein. Each casein molecule is a monomer, and a chain of casein monomers is a polymer. The polymer can be molded and made into casein plastic (Scientific American 2024). It can be used as food wrap, and it is 500 times better at sealing off food from oxygen than petroleum-based plastics (Scientific Discoveries n.d.). Milk protein is made up of eighty percent casein and twenty percent whey protein. Whey and casein can be used on their own or combined to develop edible food coatings and edible films applied on fruit and vegetable surfaces (Chaudhary et al. 2022). However, casein plastic is generally more expensive than traditional plastic. It costs around $3,000 to $4,500 a tonne, and its uses are generally limited to food packaging, as it is brittle and not very durable (Oils 2021).
Policy Recommendations
On June 8, 2022, the Secretary of the Interior issued an order outlining a “Department-Wide Approach to Reducing Plastic Pollution,” which stems from President Biden’s Executive Order on “Catalyzing Clean Energy Industries and Jobs Through Federal Sustainability” (SO 3407, U.S. Department of the Interior 2022). This increased attention and action at the federal level aims to reduce the sale and distribution of plastic products and packaging on department-managed lands by 2032 (U.S. Department of the Interior 2022). Single-use plastic products and packaging include plastic and polystyrene food and beverage containers like bottles, straws, cups, cutlery, and disposable plastic bags intended to be used once. The U.S. Department of the Interior collects solid waste and recycling information to track progress toward achieving diversion rates for waste and demolition debris of at least fifty percent by 2025 and seventy-five percent by 2030 (U.S. Department of the Interior 2022). While the executive branch is increasingly focused on reducing plastic pollution, there are no nationwide laws requiring states to recycle. Each state has its own recycling law that slightly differs but is mainly focused on either recycling goals or landfill bans. The lack of a clear nationwide law to instruct different states causes a gap in efficient recycling for different states. As recycling is not demanded, many individuals may choose not to recycle for convenience, and states may choose to implement a sub-optimal recycling system in order to preserve public funds.
Increased Funding
The lack of comprehensive recycling policies contributes to severe environmental issues. In order to address these growing issues, the United States should implement funding programs to increase the budget for research, development, and implementation of new recycling processes that increase efficiency and decrease cost, thereby increasing public trust in recycling and decreasing barriers to state policy. Funds could come from taxes, donations, and extra fees for purchasing plastic products collected from states. Funds could be deployed strategically by awarding organizations that are making progress in sustainable materials research, which would help to create competition and spur innovation. Funds could also be used to support local factories to advance production efficiency, lower costs, and reduce carbon emissions from shipping. This will make eco-friendly materials such as mushroom mycelium and casein plastics more affordable to the public, allowing them to be introduced across different states.
There are some challenges to implementing these policies. It would be hard to get appropriate funding, as the amount of money distribution across branches cannot be easily increased. Therefore, purely relying on the government, taxes, and donations will not work. It is more important to include extra charges for plastic products in the funding.
Consumer Oriented Partnerships and Marketing
People often don’t view climate change as an issue that affects them personally or their community. Therefore, they don’t feel motivated to shift to more sustainable methods, such as using eco-friendly products and properly recycling their trash. The government could fund departments to use social media to introduce these materials, allowing more individuals to view them as a decent replacement for plastic products. This would spark consumer interest which in turn could increase economic growth and open new markets. As more business opportunities are created, more organizations would turn to the production and use of sustainable materials.
In order to further incentivize the creation of business opportunities, the United States could form a partnership with companies engaged in the recycling industry, such as Exxon Mobil. Partnerships expand access to recycling systems not only for common plastics but also for hard-to-recycle plastics, reducing pollution. For instance, Exxon Mobil’s recycling facility in Baytown, Texas processes 80 million pounds of plastic waste per year, supporting the circular economy. With the implementation of this system, every state in the nation would recycle billions or even trillions of plastics that otherwise would have ended up in landfills.
Despite the array of challenges associated with these proposed recommendations, there are many benefits once these policies are implemented. The shift towards sustainable materials and recycling processes will help reduce plastic waste and pollution. It also reduces carbon emissions and harmful toxins released from landfills where plastic products are buried. A more sustainable lifestyle will protect our environment, reduce natural disasters, and alleviate climate-caused health problems. Ultimately, these policies help preserve the environment to protect biodiversity and the home of generations.
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